What is the difference between Sec 237 and Sec 188 of the ICA, 1872?  Both of these sections seem to be talking about the scope of the authority of the agent for acts committed without the prior consent of the Principal.

As a general rule under the Criminal Procedure Code, 1973, appeals lie only in limited cases, as per Sec 372. Appeals in criminal cases may be preferred by the Prosecution. However, Sec 372 contains a proviso that says "victim shall have a right to prefer an appeal." Ques: Are there any other provisions under the CrPC that allow for appeal to be pressed by anyone other than the Prosecution? If so, how are they different from the proviso to Sec 372?  

The words 'intention' and 'object' are often used synonymously in the day-to-day parlance. Under the Indian Penal Code, both of these terms have been employed under different sections, with different connotations and understanding. Sec 34 uses the phrase 'common intention'. On the other hand, while defining unlawful assembly, Sec 149 used the phrase 'common object'. Ques: What are the differences between Sec 34 (Common Intention) and Sec 149 (Common Object)? 

We gradually induce the habit of observation and questioning by beginning with a simple exercise pertaining to the Indian Contract Act, 1872. Indian Contract Act is one of the basic statutes that is studied in the first few semesters of the law school. It is ever-relevant in the practice of the law. Ques: What is the difference between consideration and reciprocal promise? Is every consideration a reciprocal promise, or vice-versa? Background: Sec 2(d) defines 'Consideration' as - "When, at the desire of the promisor, the promisee or any other person has done or abstained from doing, or does or abstains from doing, or promises to do or to abstain from doing, something, such act or abstinence or promise is called a consideration for the promise." Sec 2 (f) defines 'Reciprocal Promises' as - "Promises which form the consideration or part of the consideration for each other, are called reciprocal promises"    

The Indian Evidence Act contains many provisions dedicated to the admissibility and relevance of signs, seals, official documents, judgments, acts and laws of the United Kingdom and other commonwealth countries.  Ques: Why were these considered relevant in Indian courts? 

Sec 81 of the Indian Penal Code, 1860 explains the general exception of necessity. The section says, "Nothing is an offence merely by reason of its being done with the knowledge that it is likely to cause harm, if it be done without any criminal intention to cause harm, and in good faith for the purpose of preventing or avoiding other harm to person or property." There are two key-words which point towards the mental state of the actor, under this provision - "knowledge" and "intention". Clearly, the lawmakers used these two distinct terms to emphasize upon the degree of variation in the mental state. Ques: What is the difference between "knowledge" and "intention" as per Sec 81 of IPC?     

Under the Muslim personal law, a Muslim man is allowed to have more than one wives. A wife, once divorced, may be taken back into marriage by her husband after performing the ritual of Nikah Halala. Nikah Halala involves the cohabitation between the said wife and another man. The practice of indulging in a sexual act with the wife of another constitutes adultery. Prior to 2018, it was a punishable offence under the Indian Penal Code. Ques: Whether Nikah Halala constitutes an act along the lines of adultery? Why, or Why not? 

The criminal law is meant to regulate the conduct of the people within the society and ensure that peace and order are maintained. The law is updated from time to time to meet the demands of the evolving society.  One of the most important criminal law amendments has been the Criminal Law Amendment brought about in 2013. Ques:  Why was Section 166A of Indian Penal Code, 1860 was added by 2013 Amendment Act? What mischief does it seek to cure? 

The Indian Evidence Act, 1872 provides references regarding admissibility and relevance of facts and opinions when a question pertaining to the existence of a right or custom is being considered by the Court. Rights and customs are discussed under the Act in three different provisions, viz., Sec 13, Sec 32 and Sec 48. Ques: What is the relationship between Sec 48, Sec 13 and Sec 32 of the Indian Evidence Act? Are they different in any respect? 

Sec 354A of the Indian Penal Code, 1860 defines the offence of Sexual Harassment of a woman. It lists certain acts as constituting sexual harassment. Sec 354 (1) (i) uses the words: "physical contact and advances involving unwelcome and explicit sexual overtures". Ques: Which acts come under the meaning of the phrase "physical contact and advances", so that the offence of sexual harassment under Sec 354A of IPC, 1860 is made out?   

The Indian Contract Act, 1872 deals with the topic of Agency in detail. Two peculiar sections use seemingly similar terms in relation to the agent. The terms are - 'sub-agent' and 'substituted agent', defined by Sec 191 and Sec 194 of the Act respectively. Ques: What is the difference between a 'sub-agent' and a 'substituted agent'? Are these two different in the scope?